Small-signal S-parameter measurements can be performed on components, passive or active circuits using standard coaxial connectors, waveguides, or probe stations, with configurations ranging from 1 to 4 ports. Differential measurements can also be carried out using probes. Depending on the available setups, the accessible frequency range can span from a few Hz up to 1.1 THz. These measurements can also be performed in pulsed mode to analyze transient behaviors and to adapt to various specific environments such as a Faraday cage, thermal chuck, or temperature-controlled oven.
